The brew that waketh (and maketh) the world

A modified version of this story was recently published at the Wire:

http://thewire.in/2016/03/23/a-brief-history-of-coffee-the-brew-of-empire-sedition-and-exile-25145/

Millions across the world, including me (and likely you too), are addicted to this drug. So much so that we show withdrawal symptoms when denied it!

Caffeine - a source of comfort to many, a necessity for many others, primarily consumed in the form of tea and coffee - is the drug I am talking about. It is central to many of us kick-starting our days and yet we don’t always know how it works its magic. We also fail to appreciate the pivotal role of caffeine in jump-starting the European renaissance and revolutionizing the world.

Caffeine is an alkaloid found in tea leaves, coffee beans, cola nuts and cocoa pods. Our intake of caffeine is primarily through the coffee and tea that we consume through the day. Of the two beverages, tea is a weaker source of caffeine per cup than coffee. But why do plants produce a drug that makes us more alert and active? What is the role of caffeine in the plant kingdom. Turns out, in plants, caffeine acts as a natural pesticide that paralyzes and kills the insects feeding on them. High caffeine levels have also been found in the soil surrounding coffee seedlings, suggesting it to be secretory alkaloid that inhibits the germination of nearby seedlings giving the young coffee plants exclusive access to all the resources. In humans however, caffeine acts as a stimulant that wards off drowsiness, restores alertness and makes us more energetic. In addition to its stimulatory effects on the nervous system, Caffeine is also used as a component of several over-the-counter pain medications like aspirin and as an appetite suppressant. These very pleasurable properties of coffee also make it addictive and have fueled its rapid spread across the globe.

Caffeine callings: The march from Eden

“O Coffee! Thou dost dispel all care, thou are the object of desire to the scholar. This is the beverage of the friends of God.” -  Arabic poem (1511)  

The recorded history of coffee traces its way back to Ethiopia where legends lead us to believe that a curious goatherd named Kaldi saw his goats in a caffeine-induced-frenzy and tried the red berries for himself, only to find himself alert, active and energised. By the time, coffee was first mentioned in print by Rhazes, a persian physician (865-925 AD), the coffee trees had likely been in cultivation for centuries. Avicenna, the famous Arabic physician in 1000 AD, also writes about the purifying properties of coffee even though his boiled concoction is nothing like the strong, black brew we drink today. In the history of coffee, the arabs were the early adopters as they grew coffee trees in nearby mountains and called it qahwa (arab word for wine). Others believe that the name “coffee” originates from the Kaffa region of Ethiopia, the arab word quwwa (for power) or Kafta (referring to a drink made from the Khat plant). The drink’s earliest adopters were the sufi monks who, thanks to coffee, could now stay awake more easily for their midnight prayers.

However, from these religious beginnings, coffee soon fell into everyday use as wealthy people popularized coffee rooms and ceremonies and the not-so-wealthy resorted to coffee houses called kaveh kanes. By the end of fifteenth century, muslim pilgrims and traders had introduced coffee throughout the islamic world (Persia, Egypt, Turkey, North Africa etc.) making it a lucrative trade item. As its popularity grew, coffee became notorious as the trouble-making brew and coffeehouses gained a reputation for “improper pastimes” and seditious conversations. In fact, Sultan Murad IV, a ruler of the Ottoman empire banned all coffee houses and declared the consumption of coffee a capital offence (along with that of alcohol.) Many of the rulers themselves, were however, big fans of coffee and such bans usually didn't last long. Coffee drinking persisted despite these oppressive measures because it gave people a simple way to feel increased energy without any apparent side-effects. Coffeehouses also served a social function and allowed people to get together for conversation, entertainment, business and irreverent political chatter. So important did the brew become in Turkey that a woman could seek apparently divorce on grounds of insufficient coffee!

Coffee cabals: Marching into the Western World

The Ottoman Turks occupied Yemen in 1536 and from there began the spread of coffee across the world. The beans became an important item of trade as they were exported from the Yemeni port of Mocha (yes, that’s where the name of our modern day mocha comes from) to French and Venetian merchants. Since the coffee trade had become a major source of their income, the Turks zealously guarded their beans. No berries were allowed to leave the country without being steeped in boiling water or roasted to quell germination. Sometime in the 1600s, however, a muslim pilgrim named Baba Budan smuggled out seven coffee seeds and planted the first coffee plantations in the ghats of Southern India. The Dutch too in 1616, managed to transport a tree to Holland from Aden and from this tree began coffee plantations in Ceylon (Sri Lanka). In 1699, another Dutchman spread the trees from Malabar to Java, Sumatra, Celebes, Timor, Bali and other islands of the East Indies. The Dutch soon exercised a monopoly over the global coffee markets and by the 1700s, Java and Mocha were the most sought after coffees.

The first europeans to come in contact with coffee were intrigued by the strange new drink as the British poet Sir George Sandys noted that the Turks sat “chatting most of the day” over their coffee, which was “blacke as soote and tasting not much unlike it.” Eventually, however, coffee won over European tastes and passion. In fact, Pope Clement VIII, who died in 1605, is said to have tasted the ‘Muslim drink’ and exclaimed “Why, this Satan’s drink is so delicious that it would be a pity to let the infidels have exclusive use of it. We shall fool Satan by baptizing it and making it a truly Christian beverage.” Coffee continued to remain an exotic beverage in the first half of seventeenth century like sugar, cocoa and tea but over the next fifty years, Europeans embraced coffee and the cultural revolution that came with it.

By the 1650s, coffee was being sold on streets of Italy along with chocolate and liquor by roadside vendors. Venice’s first coffeehouse - the Caffe՛opened in 1683, named for the drink it served. A cafe՛was soon renowned for its culture, relaxed ambience, animated conversation and tasty food. In 1669, Soliman Aga, the new Turkish ambassador to France, introduced coffee at his novel parisian parties. During this early phase, many french physicians decried coffee as it “tended almost completely to disaccustom people from the enjoyment of wine.” It was only when Francois Procope, an italian immigrant opened his Cafe՛de Procope, opposite the Comedie՛ Francaise,՛that the famous French coffeehouse finally took root  in 1689. Soon, French actors, authors, thinkers, celebrities and artists were meeting at the Cafe՛for their daily dose of coffee and conversation. Coffee slowly fueled dissent - like in the Ottoman empire and ultimately spawned the French Revolution. Over the next century, coffee lessened the intake of alcohol and provided a wonderful intellectual environment that attracted leading thinkers like Voltaire, Rousseau, Diderot and even the visiting Benjamin Franklin. At a time when beer soup was the breakfast and alcohol a ready beverage, as Mark Pendergrast, the author of Uncommon Grounds: The History of Coffee and How It Transformed Our World says “coffee sobered up the world.” It gave people something to drink and socialize with without the dangers of inebriation.

The French historian Michelet described the coffee house culture as “the auspicious revolution of the times, the great event which created new customs, and even modified the human temperament.” In 1710, the french developed the infusion method of brewing powdered coffee as opposed to the Turkish method of boiling coffee beans. They then discovered the milder cafe՛au lait or the sweetened milky coffee that continues to be a popular form of coffee around the world.

The spread of the coffee culture around Europe came with its share of stories and anecdotes, the most entertaining of which is about the introduction of coffee to Vienna as camel fodder! Coffee arrived in Vienna later than in France, in July 1683, when the Turkish army threatened to invade Europe and massed outside Vienna for a long siege. The Turks however were routed in a decisive battle and they left behind tents, cattle, food provisions, gold and five hundred sacks of strange looking coffee beans that the Viennese guessed must be camel fodder. When finding no good use for this “camel fodder”, the Viennese began to burn the coffee, Kolschitzsky (a spy who had spent many years in the Arab world) yelled with approbation, “That is coffee that you are burning! If you don’t know what coffee is, give the stuff to me. I can find good use for it.” Having closely observed the turkish customs, he knew the basics of roasting, grinding and brewing and he soon opened the ‘Blue Bottle’, one of the first Viennese cafes. Within a few decades, Kolschitzsky’s coffee had fueled the intellectual life of Vienna. Unlike the rambunctious beer halls and pubs, the cafes were a place of intellectual concentration and lively scientific exchanges. In fact, right up to the twentieth century, the coffee houses of Vienna were the turf of geniuses like Gustav Klimt, Sigmund Freud and Leon Trotsky.

Historic Distribution of Coffea Arabica Map reprinted with permission from the Specialty Coffee Association of America

http://highroadcoffee.com/coffee-bean-species-types/

http://greengroundswell.com/wordpress/wp-content/uploads/2013/03/Coffee-Growing-Regions-of-the-World.jpg

Coffee and coffeehouses finally made their way to Germany in the 1670s and by 1720s there were coffee house in most major german cities. By 1732, coffee had become popular and controversial enough for Bach to write his humorous Coffee Cantata, in which a daughter implores her father to allow her this one vice. Later, the coffee obsessed Beethoven apparently ground sixty beans precisely to brew a single cup. By 1977, coffee had become entirely too popular for a fearful Frederick the Great who demanded that Germans switch from coffee to beer, Germany's more traditional drink. He sent soldiers sniffing through the streets, searching for the slightest whiff of the illegal bean even as the poor resorted to coffee substitutes like roasted chicory root, dried fig, barley, wheat or corn. Eventually, coffee outlived all these protests against it and grew to become the chief beverage of the feminine Kaffeeklatsches (gossipy social interludes).

The arrival of coffee in England was marked by the opening of its first coffeehouse in Oxford University in 1650 by Jacobs, a lebanese jew. Two years later in London, Pasqua Rosee՛ opened a coffeehouse with extraordinary claims of aiding digestion, curing headaches, coughs, consumption, dropsy, scurvy and gout. By early 1700s, coffeeshouses had proliferated all over London and they came to be known as “penny universities” because for that price one could purchase a cup of coffee and spend hours in a coffeehouse listening to public intellectuals and getting unofficial consultations. Coffeehouses were like the clubs of our times as each one specialized in a particular type of clientele - physicians, jews, actors, catholics, literati, lawyers, merchants etc. They served as England’s first egalitarian meeting places where a man was expected to chat with his table-mates irrespective of class or social standing. In fact, Lloyd’s of London - the famous insurance company, began from one such coffeehouse where seafarers and merchants gathered. The Stock exchange, The Bankers clearing house, and newspapers such as The Spectator and The Tattler also owe their origins to coffeehouses. As a British commentator observed that “coffee-drinking hath caused a greater sobriety among the nations; for whereas formerly Apprentices and Clerks with others, used to take their mornings’ draught in Ale, Beer or Wine, which by the dizziness they cause in the Brain, make many unfit for business, they use now to play the Good-fellows in this wakefull and civill drink.” The english women however had much to complain about against coffee. They, in fact, filed a petition against coffee which revealed that a typical male day involved spending the morning in a tavern “till every one of them is as Drunk as a Drum, and then back again to the Coffee-house to drink themselves sober.” Then they were off to the tavern again, only to “stagger back to Soberize themselves with Coffee.”

English Historical Fiction Authors

On December 29, 1675, King Charles II issued A Proclamation where he banned coffeehouses as of January 10, 1676, since they had become “the great resort of Idle and disaffected persons” where tradesmen neglected their affairs.”  This was perceived as an outrage and within a week, it seemed that the monarchy might actually be overthrown over coffee. Fearing such a rebellion, on January 8, two days before the proclamation was due to take effect, the king backed down. Ironically, however, despite the furore, over the course of the eighteenth century the British began to drink more tea instead of coffee. Unlike coffee, tea was simple to brew and did not require elaborate roasting and grinding. It was also easier to adulterate for a tidy additional profit. In addition, the British conquest of India had begun, and there they concentrated more on tea than coffee growing. The British East India Company pushed tea through its monopoly in China, and smugglers made tea cheaper.

Soon, coffee also made a strong imprint across the atlantic when American colonists raided British tea ships in 1773 at the famous Boston Tea Party and as a sign of protest, Americans universally switched to drinking coffee over tea. In a letter written by John Adams (one of America’s founding fathers) to his wife, he proclaims his love of tea but says that he will have to learn to embrace coffee instead, since drinking tea had become unpatriotic. Soon, every other European country had received the gift of Coffee and today, the scandinavian countries are some of the biggest consumers across the world.

The production and consumption of coffee evolved with its spread according to the local tastes, tolerances and customs. Coffee historian Ian Bersten believes that the Arab taste for black coffee, and the widespread European (and eventually American) habit of taking coffee with milk, might be explained by the difference in genetics. The Anglo-Saxons had long acquired the ability to tolerate milk, while the Mediterraneans (Arabs, Greek Cypriots, and southern Italians) tended to be lactose-intolerant. That is why they continue to take their coffee black and sweetened. Thus, according to Bersten, “From the two ends of Europe, there eventually developed two totally different ways to brew this new commodity— either filtered in Northern Europe or espresso style in Southern Europe. The intolerance to milk may have even caused cappuccinos to be smaller in Italy so that milk intolerance problems could be minimized.”  

From being prescribed as a nerve tonic, life extender and an aphrodisiac; today coffee is a necessity for many and a beverage for social bonding. Its medical and pharmacological properties have been investigated more deeply over the years and many of its legendary benefits are now proven to be more than mere myths.

Jump-starting our day - The caffeine connection

With our first cups of tea and coffee in the morning, caffeine enters our system and is rapidly absorbed from our guts and into circulation. Within 15 - 90 minutes, it is rapidly distributed throughout our system and begins to alter our brain chemistry making us more vigilant, attentive and active. The caffeine in circulation is rapidly metabolised by the liver where it is first demethylated into three different methylxanthines: paraxanthine, theobromine and theophylline; which are then finally oxidised into other waste products. These methylxanthines are structurally very similar to Adenosine - a breakdown product of ATP (the energy currency of our cells) in our body and a general dampener of neuronal firing in our brains.

Comparing the structure of caffeine with that of Adenosine as it masquerades as the other

As neurons fire away, they continue to break-down ATP into ADP, AMP and finally just adenosine that tends to accumulate around the neurons as a fatigue indicator. While Adenosine is produced abundantly and ubiquitously in the body, its effects on the brain are limited to regions where its receptors are located i.e. the guys who can pick up adenosine and report back. Once adenosine levels reach a certain level, the brain starts to ease up on the firing and nudges you towards sleep or at least rest. Adenosine, thus decreases the firing rate of neurons and dampens the release of most neurotransmitters thus making us lethargic and less alert.

At present, we know of four receptors of Adenosine called A1, A2A, A2B and A3. While all four receptors are found in the brain, the affinity and levels of activation of A2B and A3 receptors for Adenosine is very low. The A1 and A2A adenosine receptors, on the other hand, have high affinity for adenosine and are activated by low levels of it. Thus, under normal conditions adenosine binds to A1 and A2A receptors and inhibits downstream neuronal firing. However, when caffeine is consumed, the resultant methylxanthines masquerade as adenosines. They thus run through our circulation and bind to the A1 and A2A receptors but unlike adenosine, they don’t activate them. As a result, the neurons continue to fire despite increasing levels of adenosine. Caffeine, thus, makes us more alert by inhibiting the inhibitor. Or as author Stephen Braun explains in his book ‘Buzz: The Science and Lore of Alcohol and Caffeine’ consuming caffeine is like “putting a block of wood under one of the brain’s primary brake pedals.”

The overall effects of our morning cup however depend on many factors - the coffee beans used (the Robusta variety has higher levels than the Arabica variety), the roast of the bean, the method of brewing, the size of the cup and your own genetics. These many variables hinder an accurate and scientific study of the physiological effects of coffee since different beans, brews and people get different amounts of the active ingredient. Nonetheless, despite the many caveats, regular coffee drinking has been associated with several biological and physiological effects ranging from reduced risk of cancer, reduced appetite, reduced glucose absorption and poorer cardiovascular health. It has also been associated with better memory, in both humans and bees. In fact, studies have found that plants have been spiking their nectar with caffeine in order to strengthen a bee’s memory so that it keeps coming back and recruiting more workers even when the source is no longer productive. In humans too, caffeine buzz we rely on is only believed to improve our output and speed in a certain subset of tasks; It is not going to make us smarter, think better or even more creatively.  

Caffeine is also known to enable the accumulation of dopamine - a neurotransmitter involved in motivation, arousal, alertness, pleasure, motor and executive control. In fact, it is the death of dopamine producing neurons in the brain (specifically in a region called the striatum) that ultimately leads to Parkinson’s disease. Caffeine in the system also boosts our athletic performance by increasing the strength of muscle contraction, reducing pain and raising blood pressure. By counteracting adenosine action, caffeine also reduces the resting cerebral blood flow between 22 and 30%. Several small studies have shown that at low doses (100-250 mg) caffeine improves alertness and mental performance, especially in people who are already tired leading to fewer workplace accidents. Interestingly, it has also been reported to make us more supportive of each other in social situations. However, these beneficial effects of caffeine are not seemingly never-ending and can in fact have adverse consequences at high doses or in people with higher sensitivities to caffeine. Reports suggest that high caffeine consumption can lead to negative effects like jitters, nervousness, anxiety and sleeplessness.

However, as we consume our daily dose of caffeine, our brain also learns and responds to the inhibition of adenosine. It tends to compensate and increase the number of adenosine receptors available in the brain, thereby trying to restore the sensitivity to adenosine. This leads to a form of addiction where higher and higher levels of caffeine might be needed to get the same kick. The good thing though is that this process of habituation is completely reversible in a few days. Upon withdrawing from caffeine, one begins by experiencing fatigue, lethargy and headaches in 12-24 hours. The headache is caused because in the absence of the methyxanthines, the adenosines in the brain get a free reign over the many A1 and A2A receptors and start by dilating the blood vessels which leads to excess blood in the head. Soon however, the excessive numbers of adenosine receptors are lost and the system returns to baseline alertness. In fact, based on this understanding, many people speculate that to get the best kick out of caffeine, one must wean oneself off every now and then, so that the system returns to baseline and caffeine remains a potent stimulant.

Today, coffee is big business and it is one of the world’s most valuable agricultural commodities as the most widely taken psychoactive drug. From its African origins, the red-berried coffee tree has spread all over the globe - taking over vast swathes of cultivable land between the tropics of Cancer and Capricorn. The cultivation, processing, and production of this one beverage provides a source of livelihood for some 125 million people across the globe.

The simple “tasting as soote” black brew is now grown, roasted and brewed for many different tastes and flavors. Coffee experts talk about four basic traits that make the perfect cup - the aroma, body, acidity and flavour. Coffee connoisseurs are not much behind oenophiles in waxing eloquent about aromas, body, flavours and tastes. While daily caffeine consumption has increased steadily, there has also been an increase in the consumption of speciality or gourmet coffee. Brands serving these speciality coffees have been proliferating along with the special skills of a Barista who can cater to these special needs. The coffee of the last millennium which was the drink of the masses has slowly positioned itself into a luxury commodity as well.  

Today, coffee has moved beyond its seditious and revolutionary past as the drink of the common man. In fact, the innocuous black bean lies at the heart of subjugation of latin american countries and the caribbean islands. From Guatemala and Costa Rica to Idi Amin in Uganda, Coffee has become a reason/weapon of subjugation and oppression. The coffee culture that liberated the west has inadvertently led to the enslavement and persecution of indigenous people, Asians and Africans. It has transformed wild mountainsides into plantations at the expense of their natural diversity. At the same time, in the past thousand years, it has established itself as the stimulant that brings together people and as the companion of the thinking soul. So, the next time, you kick-start your day with that delicious cuppa, spare a thought for the coffee bean and for how it has shaped the world we inhabit today. Makes me wonder where the next thousand years of coffee will take us....

Journey from the wild – how to break an elephant?

Can one break an elephant? How does one break an elephant?

These are not metaphors.

These are real world questions that I walked away with on a rainy june afternoon, after a visit to the Dubare elephant camp situated on the banks of the Kaveri river in Karnataka. Dubare is a historically important elephant camp managed by the forest department where elephants used in the Mysore Dusshera processions were traditionally captured and trained. Today, it is mainly a rehabilitation center where rogue elephants from the wild are caught and tamed to minimise conflicts with villagers. As I walked around the camp, I witnessed elephants being taken through their morning rituals of a bath in the river and their meal (straw and rice neatly wrapped into fist-sized morsels). I witnessed young elephant calves giving themselves a mud-bath and ambling with long metal-chains trailing behind them leaving tracks of their movement. In my wanderings, I also witnessed an elephant in the early stages of taming and that was when I first heard about breaking an elephant.

How to break an elephant is not a question I had ever seriously considered; even though, having grown up in India elephants were never exotic beings but an inextricable part of our folklore, religion and daily lives. I had seen them as gilded portals of divinity in temples, as practical tricksters in circuses, as indefatigable powerhouses in construction projects and as sagacious seniors in zoos; sometimes even in the wild. And yet, I remained blissfully unaware of their real plight; because, despite our familiarity with these pachyderms for centuries, even today most people, like me, are not aware that elephants are not a domesticated species. In fact, most of the elephants we come across are actually caught from the wild, whose ‘will has been broken’ as they have been tamed to work with and for us humans. And, thus on a rainy afternoon in June, began my journey into understanding our complex relationship with the last of these gentle mammoths.

Contrary to what one may imagine based on their timid nature, antics in circuses, and temples, elephants are not domesticated. Domestication involves the adaptation of a species to humans and its captive environment through genetic changes that occur over generations. A domesticated species is bred in captivity and is different from its wild ancestors so that it is more useful to humans, who control its reproduction, behavior and food supply. For thousands of years - from Hannibal’s African war elephants to the modern Asian elephants – elephants are not domesticated but are rather just wild individuals whose ‘will’ has been tamed. They remain immune to our domesticating attempts by virtue of their long gestation periods, their low birth rates and their large size and appetite (expensive to maintain for the many generations needed for domestication). And yet historically, the sheer power, size and scale of elephants have made them attractive to humans as an enormous powerhouse waiting to be tamed.

History of elephant taming - In India and in the world

The art of taming and training elephants goes back nearly 4,000 years and seems to have developed originally in Asia, from where it is believed to have spread to Africa and Europe. At first, their use was mostly practical — as tanks in wartime, as timber forklifts in peacetime; but they soon became symbols of religious and social prestige. The art of capturing and taming an elephant slowly became a profession in itself, whose secrets were passed down the generations, accompanied by myths, legends and folklore that persist surround us till today. The westward course of elephants began with the first contacts between Alexander and the Indians (during Porus’s defeat) and continued after his death in 323 BC. The Carthaginians are known to have been the first to capture and train African elephants (277 BC) when Hannibal used them in his Roman campaigns. After Caesar’s time, though, the use of the African war elephant died out and with the decline of the Roman Empire, the art of taming the wild African elephant was lost as well. The interest in elephants and their taming was however renewed with the colonization of Africa and Asia by the Europeans in the 17th century. The exploitation of the African elephant for its ivory and the Indian elephant for its work capabilities meant that the creatures were studied extensively for many years.

Over the centuries, elephants have been tameddomesticated for three main tasks: warfare, industry and entertainment (in zoos and circuses). They were trained and used in warfare in India, China and Persia. The benefit lay not only in their sheer size but also in their concern for their human trainers and in their ability to charge at great speeds. This however became a handicap once gun-powder came onto the battlefield as elephants were scared into a rampage among their own troops. As one can imagine, elephants are very effective at labor that requires slogging and heavy lifting. In fact, their role in the European colonisation (through logging and transportation involved in the building of roads, railways and in other infrastructure projects) can’t be overstated. The elephant has also been used as an executioner, a symbol of social status and a religious icon.

Later with the advent of Europeans – like Carl Hagenbeck from Germany – an international trade in exotic animals began to flourish. Soon there was a demand for people to tame or train elephants and to follow them to their new owners and habitats in European zoos and menageries. The western elephant trainers, under Hagenbeck’s influence, were trained by Asian mahouts (often from Sri Lanka) and came to conduct with a mixed mentality of Asian mahouts and German horse-trainers. The 1900s saw the first imports of elephant for circuses and shows in western zoos. This was a rough time for elephants, as they were given bad food and suffered from cold weather, a lack of ‘normal’ mental stimuli and painful training methods to make them perform. But despite these challenges, elephants were bred in captivity with moderate success and this only worsened their plight as a species. Today, elephants continue to fascinate the people by their sheer majesty and antics and, yet, the training that they have to undergo to perform these feats gracefully, the physical pain and mental agony they are put through, are heartbreaking when revealed.

How are elephants captured and tamed?

In his historical account of elephant capture and taming in India – ‘Elephant Gold’ – P.D. Stracey lists five methods of capturing elephants as laid down by ancient Indian Sanskrit texts in the following order of desirability: in pens or stockades; by the use of female decoys; by ‘mela shikar’ or the noosing of elephants from the back of trained elephants; by nooses concealed in the ground; and by the pit method.

These various methods were developed and became established in different topographical regions of India. For example: in the north, there is no record of capturing elephants in pits while in the south, the stockade method remained unknown until the British (GP Sanderson) introduced it to the Mysore plateau in 1873-74.

The most ancient and widely known method of capturing elephants is that of the stockade or the khedda (the word is derived from the Hindi ‘khedna’ which in turn comes from the Sanskrit ‘khet’, meaning ‘to drive’). In the original Aryan stockade method, a large space was enclosed by a deep circular trench and the only entrance to the enclosure was a wooden bridge concealed underneath a deep layer of earth, turf and leaves. Female decoy elephants were driven into the enclosure as a trap for the wild herds that would sooner or later enter the trap. At the appropriate moment, the bridge would be demolished and the trap would be complete. The captives would be kept without food and water to weaken them, after which tame elephants would be introduced through a new bridge. A furious battle would rage between the tame and the wild elephants at the end of which the latter would be subdued, noosed in their necks and legs, and tied together.

In fact, a stockade with captive elephants can soon devolve into chaos with mothers trying to protect their young, the older males becoming aggressive and the males trying to impregnate the females. In order to bring about speedier subjugation of the captives, their necks would be incised with knives allowing the rawhide ropes to bite into their flesh. These methods are the forerunners of the capture-and-tame methods that continue to this day, including the cruelty, that hasn’t really been eliminated.

In the pit method, which was practiced in the south, deep (usually tapering) pits are dug in areas frequented by elephants. Although a thick layer of brushwood and grass bundles is laid into the pit to cushion the fall of the animals, this is usually not sufficient to prevent injuries during capture. The mouth of the pit is covered with split bamboos and camouflaged with grass and mud. When the unsuspecting animal falls in, the pit is prepared for noosing of the captive by placing two or three logs across the top. A white cloth is dangled over the elephant and when the elephant reaches up, a noose is dropped over the creature’s head. The hind legs are then noosed. When everything is ready, the neck and leg ropes are fastened to one or more tamed elephants and the captive is made to scramble out.

The most skillful method of capturing wild elephants is called ‘mela shikar’ and involves the chasing and noosing of a wild elephant by a phandi while riding on the backs of trained elephants. This involves a vast repertoire of skills in tracking an elephant, riding and chasing on an elephant, and finally noosing a wild elephant with a ‘phand’– all of which requires a long apprenticeship with an experienced phandi. Other known methods of elephant capture use nooses hidden in the ground, noosing to trap a wild elephant in chase, female decoys to attract males, lassoing, harpooning animals stranded in a flooded river and chasing elephants into enclosures. These methods have evolved in different regions of Asia (especially Burma, Siam, India and Indo-China) over centuries and continue to be practiced with minor modifications. The advancements in technologies such as tranquilizers, guns, trackers etc. over the years have further made things easier for us. The only deterrent to elephant capture so far has been the wildlife protection laws that have been introduced in some countries  even though their implementation remains dodgy.

In a disturbing and debauched twist, in all these endeavors, previously tamed and trained elephants are employed either as decoys or as koonkis (or khungkies) to restrain, control and tame the captive elephant. The main duty of the koonki is to press and confine the wild elephants between them. Several koonkis work on an elephant and squeeze it between them so that the men on the ground can work in relative safety. In fact, a good number of the captive elephants get weak at this stage and may collapse from exhaustion and heat. Some of the rogue elephants that are not subjugated are shot. In the end, a much smaller percentage of the ‘truly broken’ captive animals are tamed and trained for their ultimate purpose.

These surviving animals are wounded, bitten, hungry and isolated. The captive elephants are then marched to a kraal, or a training enclosure, where they are truly broken – in mind, body and spirit. The kraal is a tiny, roofed enclosure of teak beams, measuring some 12 square feet. When the captive is introduced, the crossbars are replaced and firmly wedged in place. Early in the training process, the elephants are marched every morning and evening to the river to the accompaniment of traditional training commands. They are made to perform simple instructions such as stopping, going backwards, and turning around. The words of command are sung to the elephant, accompanied at first by severe thwacks with sticks and jabs with iron-tipped poles, attendant elephants assisting and performing the same gyrations. The elephant has a set of body ropes to which a rider clings as one attendant walks along in front with a long, sharp, wooden spear while another tails the back. The training is terminated by a bath and drink in the river. Strict discipline, captivity, pokes and jabs, teach the already wounded and starving animal to obey commands and over weeks this battering renders a wild animal docile. In this training phase, the mahout gains the trust of the captive animal by kinder treatment and continuous attention – thus beginning their journey from the wild and into our homes, circuses and temples.  

How many elephants are there in captivity?

Today, there are approximately 15,000 elephants in captivity, mainly in Myanmar, India and Thailand. Myanmar has approximately 5,000 captive elephants, most of them involved in logging. In India, there are approximately 3,500 elephants in a variety of uses, such as festivals and temples. Thailand's approximately 2,300 captive elephants are mainly employed in tourism, where they are ridden, forced to paint, perform antics and entertain tourists. Nearly all are tamed by the "breaking the will" approach and controlled by pain and severe restriction of movements.  In fact, to facilitate training and maximize incentives, young calves are captured for taming and training through these barbaric methods. Typically, taming involves a period of "breaking the will", where a young calf, separated from its mother, undergoes intensive physical punishment and injury with sharp weapons for a few weeks to months.

In a more gruesome practice called phajan, the elephant skin is slashed so that the ropes can inflict greater pain and nails are hammered into the feet to teach them to lift their feet. After this bloody phase, command words are slowly introduced by punishing the calf while repeating a word, until the calf finds out which movement it is expected to do. In addition to causing injury and long-term mental trauma in the elephant, the process is also risky for the trainers, who get injured when a calf panics, is angered or tries to escape. Occasionally and not unexpectedly, calves die from training injuries. It also raises a breed of animals that are mentally fragile, engulfed by fear and prone to not trusting humans in general. Even once trained, an elephant’s life, health and happiness depends on its mahout and its use in future. While some mahouts and trainers are gentle and establish a strong emotional bond, some others truly believe in the power of fear and punishment in maintaining obedience. This often backfires as a subjugated animal can have bursts of rage and disobedience and when it can inflict serious damage on the people around it. This further spurs on a new cycle of pain and abuse until one or the other succumbs and forfeits.

Even today, in many countires, elephants continue to be captured, tamed and trained in order to lure tourists, to entertain us in circuses and to be a part of religious ceremonies in temples. In fact, the demand for elephants is only increasing even as the supply is plummeting due to government interventions. While most people would object to the use of elephants in circuses and to encourage tourism, we often fail to see the drawbacks of using elephants in religious ceremonies but despite the prestige and care, these elephants in temples are also paying a heavy price. Further, since most temples prefer to have males with tusks, it is mostly males who are captured from the wild thus affecting the wild mating population and its genetic diversity. Although Kerala’s temple elephants are also captured, tamed and controlled using force, their primary hardship isn’t the beatings. The typical wild elephant is a social creature that leads an active life wandering across large swathes of forest territory. On the other hand, a typical temple elephant is a celibate, captive male chained to one spot (sometimes for 24 hours at a time) and bathed with a hose. Instead of living in natural social structures, these elephants are isolated from others of its kind and, forced to stand on hard surfaces (leading to chronic joint pain). – except oOn n big temple festivities however, when many different elephants are caparisoned and  converge in close proximity underon a hot, tropical sunafternoon and are caparisoned for ritual grandeur and crowded processions. The situation is further complicated by the fact that these celebrations are often large gatherings of people accompanied by loud music, complex smells, loud noises and stress. Many unfamiliar elephant bulls are also made to stand and work in close proximity of each other, which leads to additional stress and fear. This has resulted in many incidents when an elephant has panicked and, rushed into the crowd and causinged human deaths and injuries. Other cases have involved elephants that have vented their aggression against an abusive mahout by willingly stamping him and crushing his head. In Kerala alone, elephants are reported to kill dozens of mahouts each year. The life of a temple elephant may be marginally better than in a circus but nowadays, it is definitely harder than in many zoos where increasing awareness is leading to a global trend of more-natural habitats and a system of protected-contact with humans.

What is the solution?

While many activists have proposed banning the capture of wild elephants or their use in religious ceremonies, the solution isn’t so straightforward. Asian elephants have been protected as an endangered species for nearly two decades now and their numbers in the wild have been gradually increasing, with the creatures being seen in areas where they previously weren’t. Accompanied by deforestation and expanding human occupation of previously wild areas, there is now increasing contact between humans and elephants. The ever-shrinking and fragmented nature of elephant habitats has only meant more raids on crop fields, attacks on humans and the presence of elephants in human villages. Three decades ago, wild elephants were known to have killed close to 150 people in a year, but today, there are more than 500 deaths ascribed to elephants in India. Without the taming of these wild elephants and without providing them a safe enclave, these conflicts will only increase. Also, as one can imagine, maintaining the sanctity of elephants can help in protecting them from humans when conflicts eventually arise.

Thankfully, there are ways out of this stalemate. In fact, a large body of research done over the past few decades has identified newer, better methods of elephant capture, taming and training. There have also been successful interventions to prevent contact with humans. It is hard to believe that despite the long history of interactions between humans and elephants (more than 2,000 years), many of our methods are based on myths and superstitions that have persisted continued to exist into modern times. Also, considering the art of elephant-handling is so specialised, it is difficult hard to not have faith and respect for the elephant handlers’ expertise even if it is not entirely based on facts and reason. separate it from the reverence and faith that accompanies those experienced in the field. Compounding the problem,: the general level of education and awareness of the average elephant trainer is also so low that he can’t quite be blamed for many of these practices. In fact, many mahouts find the amount of apparently unnecessary cruelty in the form of the use of knives, iron-tipped spears, ropes, starvation and fire as appalling. And yet, its use is propagated because of a lack of awareness of better, less cruel methods. What is thus needed is greater awareness of alternative methods of training and a real understanding of the impact of our actions on the elephants.

Animal-friendly training methods have been used for many years now with other species like dogs and horses but the tradition and the historical baggage surrounding elephant training makes it more challenging in this case. Training and handling of elephants by techniques of positive reinforcement, habituation and other animal-friendly techniques rather than by methods of punishment has yielded better results. These approaches cause fewer health issues, better and faster compliance from the animals and build a stronger bond with the mahout and with humans in general. Mahouts who have seen it in practice have also been very eager to learn it. These methods however are most effective only when learnt from professionals and this is where regulations and government policies can come in play.

Many organisations such as Elephant Experts provide training in these methods based on scientific principles and observations. In positive reinforcement, a qualified trainer establishes a cognitive association in the animal’s mind between a specific action, a specific command (word, gesture or touch) and a reward (a piece of food or a gentle touch). These methods work at any age but work especially well in young calves, who are ready and eager to learn. This is akin to what one would do while teaching kids a new skill by kind words, encouragement and small rewards as opposed to brutal beatings and punishments! The animal also tends to learn better in a friendly atmosphere than when paralysed by fear and stress.

Conditions of captive elephants can also be improved by being more aware and sensitive to their needs. Keeping them free in enclosed, natural conditions as opposed to keeping them chained all the time would significantly improve their quality of life and mental state. Providing softer, more natural surfaces as opposed to hard, concrete floors would also resolve their chronic health problems. Access to proper health assessment, using elephants during appropriate times of the day (and not during high noon), gradual habituation to the sights, smells and crowds, and using milder forms of punishment (like tickling) can all go a long way in making the elephants more comfortable and less perturbable. This can make them calmer and safer for the people who work in and around elephants.

Many of our conflicts with wild animals are the result of expanding human influence and presence, leading to fragmentation and destruction of wild habitats. Currently, the government captures these problematic elephant herds and tries to rehabilitate them at one its many camps. The long-term solutions for these problems will be to check population growth and urbanisation, establish national parks, increase the legal protections of animals and public awareness. In the short-term, many creative efforts have been made to achieve peaceful human cohabitation with these animals.

A case in point is the adoption of technologymobile phones and SMSes in the Valaparai region of Tamil Nadu to reduce conflicts between humans and elephants. Valaparai, is a a biodiversity hotspot in the western Ghats,. What used to be a large tract of tropical rainforest but is now reduced to patches of rainforest interspersed with tea plantations and human settlements (each hosting up to 250,000 people). Today, close to a hundred wild elephants find themselves drowning in this sea of humanity. In a collaborative project between the civil society, the government and an NGO (the Nature Conservation Foundation), Valaparai now tracks its wild elephant herds and employs large-scale text-message alerts to make locals aware of the animals’ positions. The system, initiated from 2006 onwards, is coupled to an elephant informant network, which receives and passes on messages about elephant presence to people in the area. With the widespread use of mobile phones a bulk-SMS system is being used to inform people on a daily basis. Elephant presence is also communicated as a crawl on the local cable TV channel. Additionally, GSM-based elephant alert red indicator lights are mounted in over 25 prominent locations and remotely operated when elephants are within 1 km. These methods have been well received and implemented by the community and are proving to be effective. A prototype GSM-based voice system for public transport buses to inform passengers before they alight is also being tested.This has brought about a big reduction in surprise encounters between men and wildlife and has drastically reduced the number of accidents. A detailed database of subscribers (of about 2,800 people), their place of residence, detailed maps and the location of the animals has also beenare also prepared to identify the more important corridors through which the elephant herds move; this has been used to classify the most vulnerable areas as well. Within a short span of two years, these interventions have reduced the incidents of property damage (e.g. houses, buildings or food grain storage centers) and human deaths. According to the forest department, while 2.8 lives were lost every year before the early warning system was put in place, the number dropped to 1.3 once it was launched, with no deaths in 2013. These interventions are also managed by the community and are based on extensive dialogues and rely onthrough the use of existing and easily managed technology, making the entire program sustainable and expandable. FThis program is funded by the UK-based charity Elephant Family, other international agencies and some local tea plantations, this. This is a wonderful and sustainable example of using human ingenuity in resource-poor environments to tackle the complex problem of human-animal conflicts.

The long-term hopebigger hope is that such local measures, awareness campaigns and solutions will provide our wild animals an opportunity to co-exist with the human sprawl. One also hopes that the governments of developing countries will soon wake up to realise their long-standing neglect of our ecological resources in the ir pursuit of higher GDPs and industrialisation. While progress is essential, it must not come at the expense of our biodiversity and natural resources. We must learn to use and conserve our unique resources by employing more conservation-oriented policies.

What can I, as an individual do to make a difference?

While these are big problems and the solutions require a lot more investment from people and institutions, the good thing is that we are not as powerless as it may seem. Our biggest strengths and weapons are our wallets and our voice. We can decide the kind of practices we choose to encourage and support. We, as people, parents and teachers, can raise awareness about the plight of these animals, inform people about the lesser-known aspects of their behavior and inject a sense of wonder. We can boycott circuses and performances; . And lest you think that small measures don’t have big impact, a case in point is the Ringling bros. and Barnum and Bailey circus - one of the largest traveling circus establishments in the US; which has to decided to phase out its Asian elephants and move them to a conservation center in Florida after a steady decline in public support. We can help spread awareness about the nobler and gentler methods of animal training. We can discourage the use of animals in religious processions or at least insist on better conditions for them. We can protest against the unethical treatment of animals in other countries by withdrawing our tourism dollars and we can actively urge our governments for better legislation and law enforcement. In fact, numbers suggest that if there are no more captures and no more births in captivity, within fifty years there will be few to no elephants in captivity. In a country struggling with starvation and poverty amidst its populace, this also makes economic sense.

We can support organisations, individuals and NGOs in their quest for better, more humane treatment of animals. We can walk away from practices like the buying and selling of ivory because they indirectly influence the market’s demand-and-supply equation and lead to the large-scale butchering of elephants. There are many NGOs who can use our support – in kind or in spirit. Many a battle can be won by increased awareness and we can be active conduits in the spread of this information. In other words, we can be the change we want to see in the world. And last but in no way the least, we can teach our kids the wonder of the world around us. We can tell them about these majestic and yet gentle giants that have roamed our earth since before our arrival on this planet.

So, in closing, let’s not break any more elephants for the shards are only going to hurt us.

We may not be able to unbreak the broken and unmake our mistakes – but let’s at least try to not make any more mistakes. For as P.D. Stracey says, “Perhaps it is not too much to hope that the people and their leaders will repay the debt of thousands of years of the trade in ‘elephant gold’ which has been wrung from this noble animal.”

Acknowledgement: I would like to express my sincere gratitude to Dr. Karpagam Chelliah from the Indian Institute of Science for her generous help in pointing me to the resources, that answeringed my many questions and proof-reading the document. She has conducted extensive research on Asian elephants in the wild.

A modified version of this article has been published at "The wire".

http://thewire.in/2016/02/24/journey-from-the-wild-how-to-break-an-elephant-22546/